Erythropoietin (EPO) is a glycoprotein hormone that is principally known for its role in erythropoiesis, where it is responsible for stimulating proliferation and differentiation of erythroid progenitor cells. Erythropoietin is a member of the EPO/TPO family. It is a secreted, glycosylated cytokine composed of four alpha helical bundles. The differentiation of CFU-E (Colony Forming Unit-Erythroid) cells into erythrocytes can only be accomplished in the presence of EPO. Physiological levels of EPO in adult mammals are maintained primarily by the kidneys, whereas levels in fetal or neonatal mammals are maintained by the liver. EPO also can exert various non-hematopoietic activities, including vascularization and proliferation of smooth muscle, neural protection during hypoxia, and stimulation of certain B cells. Genetic variation in erythropoietin is associated with susceptbility to microvascular complications of diabetes type 2. These are pathological conditions that develop in numerous tissues and organs as a consequence of diabetes mellitus. They include diabetic retinopathy, diabetic nephropathy leading to end-stage renal disease, and diabetic neuropathy.
Endothelial cell-selective adhesion molecule (ESAM) is a member of JAM family of immunoglobulin superfamily and consists of one V-type and one C2-type immunoglobulin domain, as well as a hydrophobic signal sequence, a single transmembrane region, and a cytoplasmic domain. It is specifically expressed at endothelial tight junctions and on activated platelets. ESAM at endothelial tight junctions participates in the migration of neutrophils through the vessel wall, possibly by influencing endothelial cell contacts. The adaptor protein membrane-associated guanylate kinase MAGI-1 has been identified as an intracellular binding partner of ESAM. Previous studies have indicated that ESAM regulates angiogenesis in the primary tumor growth and endothelial permeability. It suggest that ESAM has a redundant functional role in physiological angiogenesis but serves a unique and essential role in pathological angiogenic processes such as tumor growth.
E-selectin, also known as endothelial leukocyte adhesion molecule-1 (ELAM-1) and CD62E, is an inducible adhesion molecule that is expressed on the surfaces of stimulated vascular endothelial cells and is sometimes involved in cancer cell metastasis. E-selectin exhibits a complex mosaic structure consisting of a large extracellular region comprised of a lectin domain, an EGF-like domain, and a short consensus repeat (SCR) domain, followed by a transmembrane region and a relatively short (32 aa) cytoplasmic tail. As a member of the LEC-CAM or selectin family, E-selectin recognises and binds to sialylated carbohydrates including members of the Lewis X and Lewis A families found on monocytes, granulocytes, and T-lymphocytes. E-selectin supports rolling and stable arrest of leukocytes on activated vascular endothelium, and furthermore, it was indicated that it can also transduce an activating stimulus via the MAPK cascade into the endothelial cell during leukocyte adhesion. E-selectin regulates adhesive interactions between certain blood cells and endothelium. The soluble form of E selectin (sE-selectin) is a marker of endothelial activation, and has a potential role in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular disease as raised levels have been found in hypertension, diabetes and hyperlipidemia, althoμgh its association in established atherosclerosis disease and its value as a prognostic factor is more controversial. soluble E-selectin is inversely associated with the muscular component of the left ventricle, thereby sμggesting that the lack of such a reparative factor may be associated with cardiac remodeling in end-stage renal disease (ESRD) patients. Besides, this adhesion molecule appears to be involved in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis.
E-selectin, also known as endothelial leukocyte adhesion molecule-1 (ELAM-1) and CD62E, is an inducible adhesion molecule that is expressed on the surfaces of stimulated vascular endothelial cells and is sometimes involved in cancer cell metastasis. As a member of the LEC-CAM or selectin family, E-selectin recognises and binds to sialylated carbohydrates including members of the Lewis X and Lewis A families found on monocytes, granulocytes, and T-lymphocytes. E-selectin supports rolling and stable arrest of leukocytes on activated vascular endothelium, and furthermore, it was indicated that it can also transduce an activating stimulus via the MAPK cascade into the endothelial cell during leukocyte adhesion. E-selectin regulates adhesive interactions between certain blood cells and endothelium. The soluble form of E selectin (sE-selectin) is a marker of endothelial activation, and has a potential role in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular disease as raised levels have been found in hypertension, diabetes and hyperlipidemia, although its association in established atherosclerosis disease and its value as a prognostic factor is more controversial. soluble E-selectin is inversely associated with the muscular component of the left ventricle, thereby suggesting that the lack of such a reparative factor may be associated with cardiac remodeling in end-stage renal disease (ESRD) patients. In addition, this adhesion molecule appears to be involved in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis.
ESM1 is a secreted protein which is produced by adipocytes. It has been noticed that ESM1 may play some role in obesity-associated vascular disease since circulating ESM-1 levels are reduced in the overweight and obese. ESM1 is mainly expressed in the endothelial cells in human lung and kidney tissues. The expression of ESM1 gene is regulated by cytokines, suggesting that it may play a role in endothelium-dependent pathological disorders. Recently, ESM1 has been described as a specific biomarker of tip cells during neoangiogenesis. Its expression has been shown to be increase in presence of pro-angiogenic growth factors such as VEGF or FGF-2. In hypervascularized cancers, overexpression of endocan has been detected by immunohistochemistry using monoclonal antibodies against ESM1.
Endothelial cell-specific molecule–1 (ESM-1)—so-called endocan—is a novel endothelium derived soluble dermatan sulfate proteoglycan (PG) that is constitutively expressed by endothelial cells in lungs and kidneys and can be detected in human blood. It is encoded by the ESM1 gene. The expression of this gene is regulated by several cytokines and growth factors, such as vascular endothelial growth factor. Inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin (IL)-1β and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, stimulate the upregulation of endocan mRNA and the secretion of endocan from endothelial cells. The binding of circulating endocan to leukocyte ligand for ICAM-1—Lymphocyte Function-associated Antigen-1 (LFA-1) and to leukocyte ligand for VCAM-1—Very Late Antigen-4 (VLA-4) is important in leukocyte adhesion and interaction with activated endothelium. Endocan is a key player in the regulation of major processes such as cell adhesion in inflammatory disorders and tumor progression.
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